History Forum / General / Ancient History / February 2005

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  Nomadic Challenges and Sedentary Responses
   I. Introduction
      By the end of the second millennium B.C.E., civilizations based on
      livestock domestication and sedentary agriculture had emerged in
      Asia, Europe, and Africa. Despite the accomplishments of civilized
      cultures, civilizations actually occupied only a small portion of
      the earth. Most of the inhabited earth was populated by small
      groups of peoples who practiced pastoral nomadism, shifting
      cultivation, or hunting and gathering. Although these more
      scattered peoples did not develop civilizations of their own, they
      strongly affected the core regions of civilized cultures.
      In some cases, incursions of migratory peoples resulted in the
      collapse of civilizations, as in the case of Harappa. In other
      cases, migratory peoples were able to establish ruling dynasties
      within civilizations, as in the case of the Zhou. In many cases,
      migratory peoples served as links between civilized cores.
  II. The Rise and Spread of Pastoral Nomadism

   A. Introduction
      It is probable that nomadic societies were prevalent by 1500
      B.C.E. In the millennia that followed, pastoral nomadism varied
      according to the type of domesticated animal chosen as the primary
      source of livelihood. Nomadic peoples lived in the grassy plains
      of Asia, Africa, and the Americas, where the grasses provided the
      sustenance for their herds. These lands were generally unsuitable
      for sedentary agriculture. Pastoral societies tended to absorb or
      replace hunting and gathering groups who occupied the same
      ecological niches.
   B. The Horse Nomads
      The first nomads for which there is substantial information are
      the Indo-Europeans the Hittites, Hyksos, early Greeks, and Aryans.
      The earliest horse nomads did not ride their animals, but fought
      from chariots. Later Indo-European groups rode on horseback. The
      Hsiung-nu (known as the Huns in the West) played a major role in
      both Asia and Europe as a destructive force. Wars among pastoral
      nomads often drove large bands into the sedentary agricultural
      zones that surrounded the steppes. These migrations often
      contributed to the fall of civilizations.
   C. The Reindeer Herders of the North
      Reindeer herding as a form of pastoral nomadism may have developed
      even before herds were kept on the Eurasian steppes. Reindeer
      herders lived in isolation far from the core regions of
      civilization.
   D. The Camel Nomads
      In Arabia and the Sudanic zone of Africa, camel nomadism became
      common sometime prior to the last centuries B.C.E. Able to subsist
      on limited water and fodder, camels became critical to the
      maintenance of trade routes that crossed the great Saharan and
      Arabian deserts.
   E. The Cattle Herders
      From the upper reaches of the Nile throughout the plains of
      southern and eastern Africa, cattle nomadism was common. Better
      adapted to the ecology of the region than horses, cattle became
      the basis of wealth for warrior-dominated societies of southern
      Africa. Like the reindeer herders, the societies of cattle herders
      were initially distant from core zones of civilization.
   F. Nomadic Peoples of the Americas
      Because of the absence of large mammals in the Americas prior to
      the European contact after 1492 C.E., pastoral nomadism in the
      Americas was limited to the Andean highlands. There llamas and
      alpacas did provide a basis for limited pastoralism. The absence
      of large mammals restricted the peoples of the American steppes by
      limiting their mobility and their ability to make war.

    Nomadic Society and Culture
   A. Introduction
      Migratory patterns defined the social systems and material culture
      of nomadic cultures. Typically the steppe environment forced
      nomadic peoples to migrate seasonally in search of fodder and
      water necessary for the maintenance of their animals. In Africa,
      the tsetse fly drove cattle herders from some regions. Though
      migratory, nomads often claimed particular grazing regions and
      water sources as their own. It was necessary for pastoral nomads
      to defend their territory continuously from raids and seizure.
   B. Societies Oriented to Domesticated Animals
      Maintenance of their herds was critical to the survival of nomadic
      groups. Animals supplied meat, milk, and dairy products that were
      the staples of nomadic diet. Animals defined wealth within the
      group. Even religious rituals tended to center on animal
      sacrifices. Camel and horse nomads also depended on animals to
      transport their goods from one pastureland to another and to
      market. Animals provided the mobility these groups required to
      survive. Material cultures of nomadic groups were dominated by the
      animals they herded. Animals provided the basic subject matter for
      art and religion. Housing within pastoral societies was defined by
      the need for mobility. Animal hides and fleeces provided the
      material from which clothing was fashioned.
   C. Courage Cultures and Nomadic Patriarchy
      The harsh environment in which they lived and violence endemic to
      pastoral groups tempered nomadic societies. Warlike males bound to
      each other by ties of personal loyalty tended to dominate these
      societies. Physical valor and courage were among the most valued
      of attributes. Many pastoral nomads lived in kin-related bands
      numbering up to 100. Tribal membership was defined by recognizing
      a common ancestry among kinship groups. Clan groups within a tribe
      often quarreled with one another. Violence between kinship groups
      set off vendettas that limited the ability of clans and tribes to
      cooperate.
   D. Nomad Hospitality
      The violence of nomad society was offset by a strong emphasis on
      hospitality. Those who refused hospitality to travelers or
      refugees risked retribution from other nomadic groups. Tribal
      legends celebrated leaders for their generosity.
   E. Cultures Made for War
      Males in nomadic societies trained for war either against
      civilization centers or against other nomadic groups. The mobility
      obtained from their animals gave nomadic peoples significant
      advantages as warriors, even against the armies of sedentary
      peoples. Pastoral nomads achieved a reputation for ferocity in
      battle among the civilized peoples.
   F. Family Ties and Social Stratification
      Men dominated gender relationships within pastoral societies.
      Males controlled herds, participated in commerce, made war, and
      ruled their households. Inheritance was through the male line.
      Marriage tended to be patrilocal, and polygamy was common.
      Marriage was generally viewed as an alliance between family
      groups. Female dominance, although not unknown in nomadic
      societies, was rare. Social stratification was common with
      pastoral societies, with wealthier families acting as the patrons
      of the less wealthy. Beyond gender and patron-client relationships
      there has been limited social stratification in pastoral
      societies, perhaps because of limited occupational specialization.
      Among most nomads, only shamans are differentiated by occupation.

    Nomads and Civilization

   A. Introduction
      Nomadic interaction with centers of civilization has been varied.
      Often depicted as cruel raiders and pillagers, nomads more often
      interacted with their civilized neighbors as merchants and
      consumers of manufactured products.
   B. Nomads as Mercenaries and Empire Builders
      Civilized centers were constantly aware of the potential military
      threat posed by nomadic groups. Rulers often paid tribute to their
      nomadic neighbors or recruited them as mercenaries for their
      armies. There were inherent dangers in such recruitment, as
      mercenaries could create rival states on the borders of empires.
      In some cases, nomads have captured empires, seized the thrones of
      deposed rulers, and continued to govern using the institutions of
      the conquered peoples. Pastoral nomads have often been ambivalent
      to civilized life, preferring instead the harsh environment of the
      steppes. Those dynasties established by nomadic groups generally
      failed to last beyond several generations.
   C. Soft Living and the lure of the Desert and the Steppe
      Nomads have been suspicious of the soft living of civilized
      peoples. The Muslim historian Ibn-Khaldun theorized three stages
      of nomadic adaptation to civilized life: vigor, adaptation to
      luxury, dissolution. This theory has proved remarkably accurate.
   D. Nomads and Cross-Civilization Contacts and Exchanges
      Nomadic peoples established nearly all of the long-distance trade
      routes among civilized cores. In addition, nomadic peoples could
      be persuaded, for a fee, to provide protection for trade caravans
      crossing the steppes. Herd animals provided means of
      transportation for long-distance merchants and their goods. Ideas,
      religious beliefs, artistic motifs, and technological innovations
      traveled from one civilization center to another along the trade
      routes.

    Conclusion: Nomads and the Pattern of Global History

  Although pastoral nomads have not created empires of their own, their
  interactions with civilized cores has been extensive. The capacity of
  the civilized centers to support vastly greater populations, to
  develop greater occupational diversity, and to produce lasting
  institutions has given core regions great advantages over nomadic
  peoples. The impact of pastoral nomads has been significant, but
  usually of short duration.

                                ? 2000-2001 by [3]Addison Wesley Longman
                                         A division of Pearson Education

There are going to be differences depending on whether the peoples are
hunter-gatherers (no necessary relationship with settled peoples) or nomads
(relations sometimes good, sometimes very bad indeed).  Hunter-gatherers
tend to have established territories where they know all the resources and
don't normally go outside them, so conflicts with other groups are rare.
Nomads tend to follow resources, eg water and fodder, and are more likely to
enter into conflicts with other groups.  I suspect most Amerindian groups
are essentially hunter-gatherer (traditionally living Inuit certainly are)
and so, I think, are Sami, but Bedu are nomads.